Shortcrust pastry
Shortcrust pastry is a type of pastryoften used for the base of a tart, quicheor pie. It does not puff up during bakingbecause it usually contains no leavening agent. It is possible to make shortcrust pastry with self-raising flour, however. Shortcrust pastry can be used to make both sweet and savory pies such as apple pie, quiche, lemon meringue or chicken pie
Puff pastry or laminated
In baking, a puff pastry is a light, flaky, leavened pastry containing several layers of fat which is in solid state at 20 °C (68 °F). In raw form, puff pastry is a dough which is spread with solid fat and repeatedly folded and rolled out (never mashed, as this will destroy layering) and used to produce the aforementioned pastries. It is sometimes called a "water dough" or détrempe.
Choux pastry
Choux pastry, or pâte à choux is a lightpastry dough used to makeprofiteroles, croquembouches,éclairs, French crullers, beignets,St. Honoré cake, Indonesian kue sus, and gougères. It contains only butter, water, flour, and eggs. Like Yorkshire Pudding or David Eyre's pancake, instead of araising agent it employs high moisture content to create steam during cooking to puff the pastry.
Definitions
- Pastry: A type of food in famous dishes like pie and strudel.
- Pastry bag or Piping bag: An often cone-shaped bag that is used to make an even stream of dough, frosting, or flavored substance to form a structure, decorate a baked good, or fill a pastry with a custard, cream,jelly, or other filling.
- Pastry board: A square or oblong board, preferably marble but usually wood, on which pastry is rolled out.
- Pastry brake: Opposed and counter-rotating rollers with a variable gap through which pastry can be worked and reduced in thickness for commercial production. A small version is used domestically for pastaproduction.
- Pastry case: An uncooked or blind baked pastry container used to hold savory or sweet mixtures.
- Pastry cream: Confectioner's custard. An egg- and flour-thickened custard made with sweetened milk flavored with vanilla. Used as a filling for flans, cakes, pastries, tarts, etc. The flour prevents the egg from curdling.
- Pastry cutters: Various metal or plastic outlines of shapes, e.g. circles, fluted circles, diamonds, gingerbread men, etc., sharpened on one edge and used to cut out corresponding shapes from biscuit, scone, pastry, or cake mixtures.
- Pastry blender: A kitchen implement used to properly combine the fat and flour. Usually constructed of wire or plastic, with multiple wires or small blades connected to a handle.
- Viennoiserie: French term for "Viennese pastry," which, although technically must be yeast raised, has now become used as a common term for manylaminated and puff- and choux-based pastries, including croissants, brioche, and pain au chocolat.
Flour
Flour is a powder which is made by grinding cereal grains, or other seedsor roots (like Cassava). It is the main ingredient of bread
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types of flour
- Acorn flour is made from ground acorns and can be used as a substitute for wheat flour. It was used by Native Americans. Koreans also use acorn flour to make Dotorimuk
- Almond flour is made from ground almonds, suitable for people with gluten-free diets orCoeliac disease.
- Amaranth flour is a flour produced from ground amaranthgrain. It was commonly used in pre-Columbian meso-American cuisine and was originally cultivated by the Aztecs. It is becoming more and more available in speciality food shops.
- Atta flour is a whole-grain wheat flour important in Indian and Pakistanicuisine, used for a range of breads such as roti and chapati.
- Bean flour is a flour produced from pulverized dried or ripe beans. Garbanzo and Fava bean flour is a gluten-free flour mixture with a high nutritional value and strong aftertaste
- Brown rice flour is of great importance in Southeast Asian cuisine. Also ediblerice paper can be made from it.
- Buckwheat flour is used as an ingredient in many pancakes in the United States. In Japan, it is used to make a popular noodle called soba. In Russia, buckwheat flour is added to the batter for pancakes called blinis which are frequently eaten with caviar. Buckwheat flour is also used to make crêpes bretonnes in Brittany. On Hindu fasting days (Navaratri mainly, also Maha Shivaratri), people eat items made of buckwheat flour. The preparation varies across India. The famous ones are Kuttu Ki Puri and Kuttu Pakoras. In most of northern and western states they call this Kuttu ka atta.
- Cassava flour is made from the root of the cassava plant. In a purified form (pure starch), it is called tapioca flour (see in list, below)
- Chestnut flour is popular in Corsica, the Périgord and Lunigiana for breads,cakes and pastas. It is the original ingredient for "polenta", still used as such in Corsica and other Mediterranean locations. Chestnut bread keeps fresh for as long as two weeks. In other parts of Italy it is mainly used for desserts.
- Chickpea flour (also known as gram flour or besan) is of great importance inIndian cuisine,and in Italy, where it is used for the Ligurian farinata.
- Chuño flour made from dried potatoes in various countries of South America
- Coconut flour is made from ground coconut meat and has the highest fiber content of any flour, having a very low concentration of digestible carbohydrates makes an excellent choice for those looking to restrict their carbohydrate intake.
- Corn (maize) flour is popular in the Southern and Southwestern US, Mexico,Central America, and Punjab regions of India and Pakistan, where it called as Makkai Ka Atta. Coarse whole-grain corn flour is usually called corn meal. Finely ground corn flour that has been treated with food-grade lime is calledmasa harina (see masa) and is used to make tortillas and tamales in Mexican cooking. Corn flour should never be confused with cornstarch, which is known as "cornflour" in British English.
- Cornmeal is very similar to corn flour (see above) except in a coarser grind.
- Cornstarch is powdered endosperm of the corn kernel.
- Glutinous rice flour or sticky rice flour, used in east and southeast Asian cuisines for making tangyuan, etc.
- Hemp flour is produced by pressing the oil from the hemp seed, and milling the residue. Hemp seed is approximately 30% oil and 70% residue. Hemp flour doesn't rise, and is best mixed with other flours. Added to any flour by about 15-20%, it gives a spongy nutty texture and flavor with a green hue.
- Maida flour is a finely milled wheat flour used to make a wide variety of Indian breads such as paratha and naan. Maida is widely used not only in Indian cuisine but also in Central Asian and Southeast Asian cuisine.Though sometimes referred to as "all-purpose flour" by Indian chefs, it more closely resembles cake flour or even pure starch. In India, maida flour is used to make pastries and other bakery items such as bread, biscuits and toast.
- Mesquite flour is made from the dried and ground pods of the Mesquite tree which grows throughout North America in arid climates. The flour has a sweet, slightly nutty flavor and can be used in a wide variety of applications.
- Noodle flour is a special blend of flour used for the making of Asian style noodles. The flour could be from wheat or rice.
- Nut flours are grated from oily nuts — most commonly almonds andhazelnuts — and are used instead of or in addition to wheat flour to produce more dry and flavorful pastries and cakes. Cakes made with nut flours are usually called tortes and most originated in Central Europe, in countries such as Hungary and Austria.
- Peasemeal or pea flour is a flour produced from roasted and pulverized yellow field peas.
- Peanut flour made from shelled/cooked peanuts is a higher protein alternative to regular flour.
- Potato starch flour is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp and removing the fibre and protein by water-washings. Potato starch (flour) is very white starch powder used as a thickening agent. Standard (native) potato starch needs boiling, to thicken in water, giving a transparent gel. Because the flour is made from neither grain nor legume, it is used as substitute for wheat flour in cooking by Jews during Passover, when grains are not eaten.
- Potato flour, often confused with potato starch, is a peeled, cooked potato, mashed, mostly drumdried and grinded potato flakes using the whole potato and thus containing the protein and some of the fibres of the potato; having an off-white slight yellowish color. Dehydrated potatoes or instant mashed potatoes can also be granular, flakes.[15] Potato flour is cold-water soluble; however, it isn't used often as it tends to be heavy.
- Rice flour is ground kernels of rice. It is used in Western countries and especially for people who suffer from gluten intolerance, since rice does not contain gluten. Brown rice flour has higher nutritional value than white rice flour
- Rye flour is used to bake the traditional sourdough breads of Germany,Austria, Switzerland, Russia, Czech Republic, Poland and Scandinavia. Mostrye breads use a mix of rye and wheat flours because rye does not produce sufficient gluten. Pumpernickel bread is usually made exclusively of rye, and contains a mixture of rye flour and rye meal.
- Sorghum flour is made from grinding whole grains of the sorghum plant. It is called jowar in India.
- Spelt, an ancient grain, is a cousin to wheat. But the protein makeup is somewhat different and therefore, spelt flour is often tolerated by people who have mild allergies to certain proteins that develop when gluten is formed in making dough. Spelt dough needs less kneading than wheat dough.[Compared to hard-wheat flours, spelt flour has a relatively low (6 to 9%) protein count, just a little higher than pastry flour.[citation needed] That means that plain spelt flour works well in creating dough for soft foods such as cookies or pancakes. Crackers, turn out well because they are made from dough that does not need to rise when baked.
- Tapioca flour, produced from the root of the cassava plant, is used to make breads, pancakes, tapioca pudding, a savoury porridge called fufu in Africa, and is used as a starch.
- Teff flour is made from the grain teff, and is of considerable importance in eastern Africa (particularly around the horn of Africa). Notably, it is the chief ingredient in the bread injera, an important component of Ethiopian cuisine.
Uses of flour
Bread, pasta, crackers, many cakes, and many other foods are made using flour. Wheat flour is also used to make a roux as a base for thickening gravy andsauces. It is also the base for papier-mâché.
Cornstarch is a principal ingredient used to thicken many puddings or desserts, and is the main ingredient in packaged custard.
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Principles Of Bread Making
Fermented, made light by a ferment, yeast being usually employed.
Unfermented, made light by the introduction of air into the dough or batter.
Fermented bread is generally made by mixing flour, water, salt, fat, and yeast to a dough, a small amount of sugar being added to hasten fermentation. The dough is kneaded until it is elastic to the touch and does not stick to the board, the object being to incorporate air, and to distribute the yeast uniformly. It is then covered, and allowed to rise until it has doubled its bulk, and does not respond to the touch when tapped sharply, but gradually and stubbornly begins to sink. At this stage, the dough is “ripe,” and ready to be worked down. It will require all the way from two to three and a half hours to rise, depending on the grade and consistency of the flour used, and the temperature of the room in which it is set. This process is best accomplished at a temperature ranging from 750 to 85° Fahrenheit. The bread is then worked down well, turned over in the bowl, and left to rise until about three fourths its original bulk. It is again worked down and allowed to rise the third time, to half or two thirds its original bulk. Then it is turned out on a board, worked together, molded into loaves, and put into pans for baking. The third rising is sometimes dispensed with ; but it gives such a good grain to the loaf, thus improving both the shape and the texture of the loaf, that most housewives will favor it after a trial.
Bread is also made by setting a sponge at the beginning, making a batter of the water, the yeast, and part of the flour, and letting it rise until it is light, then adding the remaining ingredients, and working all into a dough. Bun and cracker dough is usually set with a sponge, as they require a very fine and light texture, which is best obtained by this method. Ordinary white and entire wheat breads are often made by the same process. A sponge is light enough when it appears frothy and full of bubbles. The time required will vary with the quantity and quality of yeast used, and with the temperature of the room in which it is set to rise.
Bread made from entire wheat or Graham flour must be watched more closely than that made from white flour, as it rises in less time than white bread, and the gas escapes from the dough more easily. Entire wheat bread, furthermore, must not be permitted to rise so light in the pans as white flour bread. Care in this respect will preserve in the bread that sweet, nutty, wheat flavor which is so characteristic of bread made from the entire grain, but which will be lacking if the loaves rise too light in the pans.
MOLDING THE LOAVES
In molding the loaves, it is necessary that each loaf be kneaded well. If the dough is put into the pans in soft loaves,— soft because they were not kneaded enough,— the bread will rise flat on the top instead of rounded, and is likely to fall when placed in the oven. Each loaf should be kneaded into a hard roll, then flattened down, and rolled up into a hard roll. Put into oiled pans, and brush the top of each loaf with an oiled brush, to pre-vent a crust from drying on while the bread is rising.
PROVING THE LOAVES
It is very important to know when the dough is sufficiently light after it has been placed in the pans. It should never be allowed to rise to its limit before it is put into the oven, but should continue to rise for the first ten minutes afterwards. It is far better to bake the bread a little too soon than to let it get too light. If it is permitted to rise too much in the pans, it will be coarse-grained and rather tasteless. If, however, the loaves get too light in the pans, they may be molded over and put to rise again. To test the lightness of the dough in the pans, press the loaf gently with the index finger. If it responds promptly to the pressure of the finger, it may be left to rise more; but if it responds weakly, it should be placed in the oven immediately.
BAKING
Bread should be baked in a quick oven to begin with. The oven should not be so hot as to burn the outside of the loaf before the inside is cooked, but should be of such a temperature that the bread may rise for the first ten minutes, and then have sufficient crust to hold it up, when the fire should be closed up to hold a steady heat until the bread is done. For the small loaves, forty to forty-five minutes is generally sufficient; for the larger ones or those of ordinary size, one hour to an hour and a quarter. A well baked loaf may be lifted from the pan and placed upon the palm of the hand without burning it. This should always be the case when bread is well baked and the moisture evaporated. When done, remove from the pans and lay on the side on a wire rack to cool. If brushed over the top with warm water just after it is taken out of the oven, the crust of the bread will keep softer, and will have a nice color.
It is well to remember that when yeast bread is set warm, it must be kept warm throughout the rising, as, if it becomes chilled after it begins to work, it will be “sickly,” and is likely to sour. When a sponge or dough is set at night, it should always be set with cold water, about 65° or 70°, or about the temperature of the room. Bread set at night, furthermore, requires only half as much yeast as is used for bread set during the day. Night bread is usually set with a sponge, the amount of flour used being about the same by measure as that of the liquid. By morning, it will be lively, and when mixed into a dough, will rise very quickly without any warming.
role of each ingredient in bread making
Flour
The flour used for bread making should have a creamy white colour; it should feel slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into a lump in the hand, it should fall apart as soon as the hand is opened. The protein content s\of the flour should be high.
Yeast
After flour, yeast is the next important ingredient for bread making.
Yeast is a unicellular microscopic plant. It consists of a cell wall, protoplasm and vacuole. It requires food, moisture and right temperature for its growth and reproduction. They reproduce by budding.
There is no organism known other than yeast which contains the same combination of enzymes in the same proportion. That is why there is no substitute for yeast as a fermenting enzyme.
(Enzymes are minute substances produced by living organisms which by its mere presence are capable of bringing bout or speeding up certain changes. The enzyme itself is neither destroyed nor changed.)
The most important enzymes which take part in the fermentation process are invertase, maltase, zymase and protease. (Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugar and changes then into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The release of gas produces the leavening action. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking.
The sugar in bread dough comes from two sources-
a. It is added to the dough by the baker.
b. It is produced from flour by the breakdown of starch into sugar by enzymes present in the flour. α and β amylase.
Invertase – Converts sucrose or cane sugar into simple sugar known as invert sugar which is a combination of dextrose (glucose) and fructose.
Maltase – It converts maltose sugar into dextrose (glucose) which is directly fermentable by yeast.
Zymase – It is actually the specific fermenting enzyme in yeast. Zymase attacks dextrose and is converted into carbon dioxide, alcohol and very small amounts of glycerin, lactic acid, and acetic acid. All these impart the particular flavor to bread.
Protease – this enzyme has a mellowing action on flour proteins, thus making he gluten strands more stretchable for bread to acquire volume and form structure.
As yeast is a living organism and is sensitive to temperatures.
Storage temperature - 1°C - 4°C Inactive
15°C - 20°C Slow action
20°C - 32°C Best growth
32°C Reaction slows down
60°C Yeast is killed
Sucrose Invertase Dextrose + Fructose
Maltose Maltase Dextrose + Dextrose
Dextrose Zymase Carbon dioxide + alcohol
(Glucose) Succinic + lactic + acetic acid + glycerin
Yeast is available in 3 forms:
1. Fresh yeast / Compressed / wet yeast is moist and perishable.
2. Active dry yeast is a dry granular form of yeast. It has to be activated before use, i.e. it has to be rehydrated in 4 times water its weight of warm water before use.
3. Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast.
Compressed yeast should be used 2-2.5 times more as compared to dry yeast.
Sugar:-
The main function of sugar in bread making is to provide for yeast which in turn produces carbon dioxide. It helps in enhancing the flavor of bread. Being hygroscopic, sugar helps to retain moisture in bread.
It contributes to the golden brown outer crust colour of bread.
Apart from the sugar added in the formula, sugar is present in the fermenting dough as a result of the diastase activity. This sugar provides food for yeast at a certain time at the final stage of fermentation. It also imparts bloom to the bread.
Fat:-
Fat is used in bread making at the rate of 1-2%. Fat adds nutritive value to the bread. It acts as a lubricant on the gluten strands, thus improves the extensibility which enables the bread to acquire good volume. Fat also helps to retain moisture in the bread and thus its sliceability. Fat should be added during the last stages of mixing. If it is added in the beginning, it will have an adverse effect on water absorption power of the flour.
Salt:-
Sat imparts taste to the bread. It also helps in bringing out the flavour in bread. Is has a controlling effect on the yeast activity and thus keeps the speed of fermentation under check. Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins thus improving the gas retention power in the dough. Salt being hygroscopic, it helps to keep bread fresh and moist for a longer period of time. The colour of the crust is largely dependant on the amount of salt added while making the dough. That means if there is less salt in the dough, yeast action will be more than normal and there will be less sugar for caramelisation resulting in poor crust colour. On the other hand if more salt is present, there will be more sugar left at the time of baking due to the controlling effect of salt on yeast and the crust colour will be dark.
The amount of sugar in a bread recipe varies between 1.25% - 2.5% depending on the strength of the flour, length of fermentation time, etc.
Water:-
Any water which is fit to drink can be used for bread making. Water binds together the insoluble proteins of flour to form gluten.
STEPS IN BREAD MAKING
All yeast products can be categorized into – lean dough products, rich dough products and rolled-in yeast dough products.
Lean Dough products are low in fat and sugar. E.g. bread rolls, French bread, brown bread, pizza, etc.
Rich Dough products are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, eggs, etc. E.g. Brioche, sweet buns, etc.
Rolled-in dough products are those in which fat is incorporated into the dough in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure. E.g. Crossaints, Danish pastry, etc.
There are 12 basic steps in the production of yeast breads. They are:-
1. Scaling ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Knockback
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
7. Intermediate proving
8. Panning / make – up
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
1. Scaling:-
All ingredients must be accurately weighed. Water, milk and eggs must be measured by volume. Special care must be taken while measuring spices, salt, etc.
2. Mixing:-
Mixing the dough has three main purposes-
1. To combine all ingredients into a uniform smooth dough.
2. To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough
3. To develop gluten.
The dough could be made by hand or machine. When water is added while making the dough, gluten and gliadin join together to form gluten. Initially this gluten does not have much elasticity as it absorbs more water, along with proper kneading, the texture improves, the surface of the dough becomes smooth, the surface may show some round coin shaped gas bubbles trapped under a thin film of dough. A small piece of correctly mixed dough can be stretched between fingers into a thin translucent film.
3. Fermentation:-
Fermentation is a process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in the dough to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Gluten becomes smoother and more elastic during fermentation.
The temperature should be between 28°C - 30°C and the relative humidity at 70% to 75% and time for fermentation is decided according to the strength of the flour and the recipe.
If the dough is allowed to over ferment (old dough), the dough becomes soft and sticky and the gluten strands will weaken.
An underfermented dough (green dough) will produce a bread with less volume and texture will be close and compact. The bread will dry out soon and will be crumbly due to insufficient conditioning of gluten.
4. Knock-back (Punching):-
After the dough is fermented for 2/3rd of its estimated time, it is knocked back.
Knock back helps to expel carbon dioxide, relaxes the gluten, redistributes the yeast for further growth and equalizes the temperature throughout the dough. It also exposes the yeast cells to fresh oxygen.
Punching is not hitting the dough with your fist, but deflating the dough.
5. Scaling / Dividing:-
Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight according to the product being made.
During scaling allowance is made for weight loss due to evaporation of moisture in the oven. The weight loss is approximately 10% - 13% of the weight of the dough. Allow 50g – 65g per 500g.
Scaling should be done rapidly and efficiently to avoid overfermentation.
6. Rounding:-
After scaling, the pieces of dough are shaped into smooth round balls. Rounding simplifies the later shaping of the dough and also helps to retain gases produced by the yeast (pulling and breaking of the dough should be avoided as it disturbs the trend of gluten strands thereby affecting the final texture of the product. It is desirable to cut the dough with a regular dough cutter).
7. Intermediate proving / Benching:-
Rounded portions of the dough are allowed to rest for 20-30 minutes. This relaxes the dough to make shaping of the dough easier. Fermentation continues during this period.
8. Moulding / Panning / Make-up:-
The dough, soft and pliable after the intermediate proving is moulded as per the desired shape.
Proper make up is of critical importance. All gas bubbles should be expelled during moulding. Bubbles left in the dough will result in large holes in the product. The dough should not be moulded too tight or too loose. Too tight moulding may tear off the surface and too loose moulding will open up the texture to an undesirable extent.
9. Proofing:-
Proofing is a continuation of the process of yeast fermentation that increases the volume of the shaped dough. The temperature (27°C - 30°C) and 70% - 80% humidity of the proofing cabinet will help the dough to double in size without the formation of a crust.
10. Baking:-
After the bread has acquired full volume, it is baked. The temperature and humidity of the oven should be well maintained.
When bread is kept in the oven, is acquires heat gradually. Due to the increase in temperature, the yeast starts functioning vigorously producing gas which raises the volume of the product. The difference in the size of the product from the time it was kept in the oven to the time it is properly baked is known as oven-spring.
As baking proceeds, proteins coagulate and starch gets gelatinized. The product becomes firm and holds shape.
Finally, the product acquires crust colour.
11. Cooling:-
After baking, bread must be removed from the moulds immediately and cooled on racks to allow the escape of excess moisture and alcohol.
Sweating takes place when moisture gets trapped between the bread and the surface of the mould which makes the bread soggy, technically known as sweating.
When the bread is hot, starch granules are in a swollen state and unstably held by the gluten network. If bread is sliced in this state, the starch granules will lump together giving a very poor appearance to the slice. As the bread cools down, the starch granules will shrink and stabilize in the gluten framework thus making it easy to slice the loaf.
12. Storing:-
Breads to be served within 8 hours may be left on the rack. For longer storage, breads are to be wrapped in moisture proof bags to retard staling. Breads must be thoroughly cooled before wrapping.
The flour used for bread making should have a creamy white colour; it should feel slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into a lump in the hand, it should fall apart as soon as the hand is opened. The protein content s\of the flour should be high.
Yeast
After flour, yeast is the next important ingredient for bread making.
Yeast is a unicellular microscopic plant. It consists of a cell wall, protoplasm and vacuole. It requires food, moisture and right temperature for its growth and reproduction. They reproduce by budding.
There is no organism known other than yeast which contains the same combination of enzymes in the same proportion. That is why there is no substitute for yeast as a fermenting enzyme.
(Enzymes are minute substances produced by living organisms which by its mere presence are capable of bringing bout or speeding up certain changes. The enzyme itself is neither destroyed nor changed.)
The most important enzymes which take part in the fermentation process are invertase, maltase, zymase and protease. (Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugar and changes then into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The release of gas produces the leavening action. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking.
The sugar in bread dough comes from two sources-
a. It is added to the dough by the baker.
b. It is produced from flour by the breakdown of starch into sugar by enzymes present in the flour. α and β amylase.
Invertase – Converts sucrose or cane sugar into simple sugar known as invert sugar which is a combination of dextrose (glucose) and fructose.
Maltase – It converts maltose sugar into dextrose (glucose) which is directly fermentable by yeast.
Zymase – It is actually the specific fermenting enzyme in yeast. Zymase attacks dextrose and is converted into carbon dioxide, alcohol and very small amounts of glycerin, lactic acid, and acetic acid. All these impart the particular flavor to bread.
Protease – this enzyme has a mellowing action on flour proteins, thus making he gluten strands more stretchable for bread to acquire volume and form structure.
As yeast is a living organism and is sensitive to temperatures.
Storage temperature - 1°C - 4°C Inactive
15°C - 20°C Slow action
20°C - 32°C Best growth
32°C Reaction slows down
60°C Yeast is killed
Sucrose Invertase Dextrose + Fructose
Maltose Maltase Dextrose + Dextrose
Dextrose Zymase Carbon dioxide + alcohol
(Glucose) Succinic + lactic + acetic acid + glycerin
Yeast is available in 3 forms:
1. Fresh yeast / Compressed / wet yeast is moist and perishable.
2. Active dry yeast is a dry granular form of yeast. It has to be activated before use, i.e. it has to be rehydrated in 4 times water its weight of warm water before use.
3. Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast.
Compressed yeast should be used 2-2.5 times more as compared to dry yeast.
Sugar:-
The main function of sugar in bread making is to provide for yeast which in turn produces carbon dioxide. It helps in enhancing the flavor of bread. Being hygroscopic, sugar helps to retain moisture in bread.
It contributes to the golden brown outer crust colour of bread.
Apart from the sugar added in the formula, sugar is present in the fermenting dough as a result of the diastase activity. This sugar provides food for yeast at a certain time at the final stage of fermentation. It also imparts bloom to the bread.
Fat:-
Fat is used in bread making at the rate of 1-2%. Fat adds nutritive value to the bread. It acts as a lubricant on the gluten strands, thus improves the extensibility which enables the bread to acquire good volume. Fat also helps to retain moisture in the bread and thus its sliceability. Fat should be added during the last stages of mixing. If it is added in the beginning, it will have an adverse effect on water absorption power of the flour.
Salt:-
Sat imparts taste to the bread. It also helps in bringing out the flavour in bread. Is has a controlling effect on the yeast activity and thus keeps the speed of fermentation under check. Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins thus improving the gas retention power in the dough. Salt being hygroscopic, it helps to keep bread fresh and moist for a longer period of time. The colour of the crust is largely dependant on the amount of salt added while making the dough. That means if there is less salt in the dough, yeast action will be more than normal and there will be less sugar for caramelisation resulting in poor crust colour. On the other hand if more salt is present, there will be more sugar left at the time of baking due to the controlling effect of salt on yeast and the crust colour will be dark.
The amount of sugar in a bread recipe varies between 1.25% - 2.5% depending on the strength of the flour, length of fermentation time, etc.
Water:-
Any water which is fit to drink can be used for bread making. Water binds together the insoluble proteins of flour to form gluten.
STEPS IN BREAD MAKING
All yeast products can be categorized into – lean dough products, rich dough products and rolled-in yeast dough products.
Lean Dough products are low in fat and sugar. E.g. bread rolls, French bread, brown bread, pizza, etc.
Rich Dough products are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, eggs, etc. E.g. Brioche, sweet buns, etc.
Rolled-in dough products are those in which fat is incorporated into the dough in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure. E.g. Crossaints, Danish pastry, etc.
There are 12 basic steps in the production of yeast breads. They are:-
1. Scaling ingredients
2. Mixing
3. Fermentation
4. Knockback
5. Scaling
6. Rounding
7. Intermediate proving
8. Panning / make – up
9. Proofing
10. Baking
11. Cooling
12. Storing
1. Scaling:-
All ingredients must be accurately weighed. Water, milk and eggs must be measured by volume. Special care must be taken while measuring spices, salt, etc.
2. Mixing:-
Mixing the dough has three main purposes-
1. To combine all ingredients into a uniform smooth dough.
2. To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough
3. To develop gluten.
The dough could be made by hand or machine. When water is added while making the dough, gluten and gliadin join together to form gluten. Initially this gluten does not have much elasticity as it absorbs more water, along with proper kneading, the texture improves, the surface of the dough becomes smooth, the surface may show some round coin shaped gas bubbles trapped under a thin film of dough. A small piece of correctly mixed dough can be stretched between fingers into a thin translucent film.
3. Fermentation:-
Fermentation is a process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in the dough to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Gluten becomes smoother and more elastic during fermentation.
The temperature should be between 28°C - 30°C and the relative humidity at 70% to 75% and time for fermentation is decided according to the strength of the flour and the recipe.
If the dough is allowed to over ferment (old dough), the dough becomes soft and sticky and the gluten strands will weaken.
An underfermented dough (green dough) will produce a bread with less volume and texture will be close and compact. The bread will dry out soon and will be crumbly due to insufficient conditioning of gluten.
4. Knock-back (Punching):-
After the dough is fermented for 2/3rd of its estimated time, it is knocked back.
Knock back helps to expel carbon dioxide, relaxes the gluten, redistributes the yeast for further growth and equalizes the temperature throughout the dough. It also exposes the yeast cells to fresh oxygen.
Punching is not hitting the dough with your fist, but deflating the dough.
5. Scaling / Dividing:-
Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight according to the product being made.
During scaling allowance is made for weight loss due to evaporation of moisture in the oven. The weight loss is approximately 10% - 13% of the weight of the dough. Allow 50g – 65g per 500g.
Scaling should be done rapidly and efficiently to avoid overfermentation.
6. Rounding:-
After scaling, the pieces of dough are shaped into smooth round balls. Rounding simplifies the later shaping of the dough and also helps to retain gases produced by the yeast (pulling and breaking of the dough should be avoided as it disturbs the trend of gluten strands thereby affecting the final texture of the product. It is desirable to cut the dough with a regular dough cutter).
7. Intermediate proving / Benching:-
Rounded portions of the dough are allowed to rest for 20-30 minutes. This relaxes the dough to make shaping of the dough easier. Fermentation continues during this period.
8. Moulding / Panning / Make-up:-
The dough, soft and pliable after the intermediate proving is moulded as per the desired shape.
Proper make up is of critical importance. All gas bubbles should be expelled during moulding. Bubbles left in the dough will result in large holes in the product. The dough should not be moulded too tight or too loose. Too tight moulding may tear off the surface and too loose moulding will open up the texture to an undesirable extent.
9. Proofing:-
Proofing is a continuation of the process of yeast fermentation that increases the volume of the shaped dough. The temperature (27°C - 30°C) and 70% - 80% humidity of the proofing cabinet will help the dough to double in size without the formation of a crust.
10. Baking:-
After the bread has acquired full volume, it is baked. The temperature and humidity of the oven should be well maintained.
When bread is kept in the oven, is acquires heat gradually. Due to the increase in temperature, the yeast starts functioning vigorously producing gas which raises the volume of the product. The difference in the size of the product from the time it was kept in the oven to the time it is properly baked is known as oven-spring.
As baking proceeds, proteins coagulate and starch gets gelatinized. The product becomes firm and holds shape.
Finally, the product acquires crust colour.
11. Cooling:-
After baking, bread must be removed from the moulds immediately and cooled on racks to allow the escape of excess moisture and alcohol.
Sweating takes place when moisture gets trapped between the bread and the surface of the mould which makes the bread soggy, technically known as sweating.
When the bread is hot, starch granules are in a swollen state and unstably held by the gluten network. If bread is sliced in this state, the starch granules will lump together giving a very poor appearance to the slice. As the bread cools down, the starch granules will shrink and stabilize in the gluten framework thus making it easy to slice the loaf.
12. Storing:-
Breads to be served within 8 hours may be left on the rack. For longer storage, breads are to be wrapped in moisture proof bags to retard staling. Breads must be thoroughly cooled before wrapping.
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